Chapter 5 Change and Development in Industrial Society

Images Of Industrial Society

Industrialization has profoundly reshaped societies, moving work from agriculture to factories, offices, and service sectors, leading to urbanization and changes in social relationships. Early sociologists like Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim noted features like increased urbanization, the decline of face-to-face rural interactions replaced by anonymous factory relationships, detailed division of labor, repetitive tasks, and potential alienation. While industrialization can increase equality in some spheres (e.g., public spaces), it can also perpetuate or exacerbate economic inequality and older forms of discrimination (e.g., caste or gender bias in employment).

Modernization theory views industrialization as an inevitable and positive progression toward Western models. However, India's experience presents a unique case where industrialization and urbanization under colonialism led to de-industrialization in traditional sectors and the decline of older cities, while new colonial cities emerged. The impact on employment patterns also differs, with a larger informal sector in India compared to developed nations.

Activity 5.1 prompts reflection on the convergence thesis and the influence of culture on adapting to new technologies.

Industrialisation In India

The Specificity Of Indian Industrialisation

India's industrialization differs from Western models due to its colonial context. While Western industrialization often coincided with urbanization, India experienced de-industrialization in traditional crafts due to competition from British manufactured goods, alongside the growth of new colonial cities. Post-independence, India pursued a planned development strategy, emphasizing heavy industries and the public sector, alongside encouraging small-scale industries.

The structure of employment in India remains heavily reliant on the primary sector (agriculture), with a small organized sector providing secure, benefit-rich jobs. The vast informal sector, characterized by self-employment and casual labor, offers limited security and benefits, often operating outside strict regulations.

Activity 5.2 discusses the distribution of workers by employment status. Activity 5.3 suggests researching the Bidi industry and farmers' suicides.

Industrialisation In The Early Years Of Indian Independence

Following independence, India adopted a planned development strategy emphasizing industrialization, with the government taking control of key sectors ("commanding heights of the economy") like defense, transport, power, and mining. This mixed economy model aimed to promote growth and social equity, with licensing policies designed to ensure regional industrial dispersal. New industrial towns emerged, shifting the industrial landscape from coastal centers to inland areas.

Activity 1.2 (referencing colonial urban centres) and Activity 1.3 (researching Amul's emergence) are relevant here, as is Activity 1.4 on industrial towns.

Globalisation, Liberalisation And Changes In Indian Industry

Since the late 1980s, India's policy shift towards liberalization and globalization has significantly impacted its industries. This involves increased participation in the global market, privatization of public sector enterprises, deregulation, reduced trade barriers, and greater foreign investment. While beneficial for sectors like software and IT, it has exposed other industries (e.g., agriculture, small-scale manufacturing) to intense global competition.

Multinational corporations are increasingly entering the Indian market, leading to the acquisition of domestic companies and a rise in contract-based work. This trend reduces permanent employment and job security, shifting labor towards the informal sector with fewer benefits. While globalization offers new opportunities, it also raises concerns about rising income inequality and the impact on traditional livelihoods.

Box 5.1: Retail chains scramble to enter Indian market illustrates the challenges and opportunities presented by foreign investment in the retail sector.

How People Find Jobs

Job seeking and recruitment processes vary significantly between public and private sectors and across different types of work. Public sector jobs, often advertised with detailed qualifications and offering benefits like HRA, clear promotion paths, and seniority-based progression, are highly sought after due to their security.

Private sector jobs, like those in hotels, may offer more flexible qualifications and work arrangements but can be contract-based. The IT sector, while offering perceived creative work, also involves intense schedules and Taylorist labor processes. Many jobs, especially for skilled trades (plumbers, electricians) and even professional services (architects, photographers), rely heavily on personal contacts and reputation. Recruitment in traditional industries like textile mills often involved jobbers or contractors, though unions and management now play a larger role. The rise of outsourcing and contract labor, even in the organized sector, reduces job security and benefits.

Box 5.2: Dyal Singh College Advertisement exemplifies a public sector job posting. Box 5.3: Radisson Hotel Delhi Advertisement shows a private sector job opening. Box 5.4: Labour groups in the brickyards of South Gujarat describes the harsh and exploitative conditions of migrant child labor.

Activity 5.3 suggests researching the tobacco-to-bidi-making process. Activity 5.2 prompts reflection on machinery's impact and Gandhi's alternative views.

How Is Work Carried Out?

Work organization, particularly in industrial settings, has evolved significantly. Early industrialization saw the rise of "Scientific Management" (Taylorism) and assembly lines, breaking down tasks into repetitive, timed elements to maximize efficiency. This often led to workers feeling like extensions of the machine, experiencing alienation, exhaustion, and a lack of connection to the final product.

Modern workplaces, including the IT sector, continue to grapple with these processes, with long working hours, "night outs" for deadlines, and flexible timing often translating into pressure to work excessively. While technology can increase productivity, it also poses risks of job displacement. The shift towards indirect control, where workers self-monitor, is contrasted with enduring Taylorist practices. The contrast between the skills of a traditional farmer and a software professional highlights different forms of knowledge and expertise in a changing economy.

Box 5.5: 'Time Slavery' in the IT Sector illustrates the demanding work culture in the IT industry.

Working Conditions

Working conditions vary significantly across industries and sectors. In mines, laws like the Mines Act (1952) aim to regulate working hours, overtime pay, and safety, but these are often not followed in smaller mines or quarries, especially with widespread subcontracting that avoids responsibility for worker welfare and accidents. Workers in underground mines face risks like flooding, fire, and gas emissions, leading to health issues like tuberculosis and silicosis. Overground mine workers face environmental hazards and injuries.

Migrant workers, often from marginalized communities, face particularly poor working and living conditions, lack of rights, and exploitation by contractors. While migration can offer some independence for young women, it often leads to loneliness and vulnerability. The increasing use of contract labor and outsourcing, even in the organized sector, further erodes job security and stability.

Box 5.6: Time running out for 54 trapped miners in Jharkhand highlights the dangers and poor safety standards in mining. Activity 5.3 provides a framework for researching the tobacco-to-bidi process, relevant to home-based work conditions.

Home-based Work

Home-based work is a significant part of the economy, often involving women and children in tasks like making lace, carpets, bidis, or agarbattis. Agents supply raw materials and collect finished products, paying workers on a piece-rate basis. The bidi industry exemplifies this, where a complex supply chain involves villagers collecting leaves, contractors supplying materials to home workers (often women), who roll bidis. This work is often done for low pay and long hours, impacting health (e.g., backache from prolonged sitting).

Box 5.7: Life history of a bidi worker depicts the challenging circumstances of a young girl forced into rolling bidis due to family poverty. Box 5.7 also includes a pie chart showing the distribution of value in a finished bidi, highlighting the low share received by the worker.

Strikes And Unions

Trade unions play a vital role in advocating for workers' rights, better wages, and safer working conditions. However, unions in India face challenges like regionalism and casteism, though some progress has been made in overcoming caste barriers in workplaces. Strikes are a significant tool for workers to negotiate with management, but they involve considerable hardship, including loss of wages and potential job loss.

The Bombay Textile Strike of 1982, led by Dr. Datta Samant, affected hundreds of thousands of workers demanding better wages and union rights. The strike highlighted the government's role, the use of strike-breakers, the involvement of mafia elements, the resilience of workers facing extreme hardship, and the eventual displacement of workers due to mill closures and the shift to the powerloom sector.

Box 5.8: Bombay Textile Strike of 1982 provides multiple perspectives on the strike, detailing worker grievances, leadership, management tactics, union struggles, and the personal sacrifices made by workers and their families.